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Lotfi Demikha, Amir Shaharuddin and Mahmoud Mohamed Ali Mahmoud Edris 2021. The macroeconomic determinants of external debt in Ottoman Empire: A study of data from 1881–1913. The Journal of Muamalat and Islamic Finance Research. 18, 1 (Jun. 2021), 120-136. DOI:https://doi.org/10.33102/jmifr.v18i1.336.